Invasion Risk Assessment and Ecological Impacts of Saccharum spontaneum L. in the Southern Caspian Coastal Ecosystems, Northern Iran
Subject Areas : Ecosystem sustainability
Reza Zamani
1
,
Mohammad Dehdar Dargahi
2
*
,
mahsa Hakimi Abed
3
,
mahmoud Bidarlord
4
1 - Department of Environment, La.C. Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran.
2 - Department of Environment, La.C. Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran.
3 - Department of Environment, La.C. Islamic Azad University, Lahijan, Iran.
4 - Natural Resources, Research and Education Center, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, (AREEO), Rasht, Iran.
Keywords: Biological invasion, Coastal dunes, Saccharum spontaneum, EICAT, SEICAT, Invasive species, Boujagh National Park,
Abstract :
Saccharum spontaneum is recognized as an invasive species in many tropical and subtropical regions. Despite its spread along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, no comprehensive assessment of its invasion risk and ecological impacts has been conducted in Iran. This study presents the first invasion risk assessment of S. spontaneum in Iran and examines its environmental impacts in coastal ecosystems of northern Iran. Field surveys were conducted during the growing seasons from 2022 to 2026 along the southern Caspian coastline. Species occurrence, habitat characteristics, and ecological impacts were recorded using the line-transect method. Invasion risk was assessed using the Weed Risk Assessment (WRA) system, while environmental and socio-economic impacts were assessed using the EICAT and SEICAT frameworks, respectively. The results showed that the species forms dense, nearly monospecific stands in pristine sandy coastal habitats, as well as along roadsides, in abandoned lands, and in degraded coastal habitats. The risk assessment classified S. spontaneum as Very High Risk. The most important environmental impacts included competition for space and light, alteration of vegetation structure, changes in species composition, and reduced abundance of the native coastal species Convolvulus persicus. According to EICAT, the species was assigned to the Major (MR) impact category. The SEICAT assessment indicated Moderate (MO) socio-economic impacts, including reduced tourist access to some beaches, declining visual quality of coastal landscapes, and increased management costs for infested habitats.
Akhani, H., Djamali, M., Ghorbanalizadeh, A., & Ramezani, E. (2010). Plant biodiversity of Hyrcanian relict forests, northern Iran: An overview of the flora, vegetation, palaeoecology and conservation. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 42(Special Issue), 231–258. https://mail.pakbs.org/pjbot/PDFs/42(SI)/PJB42(SI)231.pdf
Bacher, S., Blackburn, T. M., Essl, F., Genovesi, P., Heikkilä, J., Jeschke, J. M., Jones, G., Keller, R., Kenis, M., Kueffer, C., Martinou, A. F., Nentwig, W., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., Rabitsch, W., Richardson, D. M., Roy, H. E., Saul, W. C., Scalera, R., ... Kumschick, S. (2018). Socio-economic impact classification of alien taxa (SEICAT). Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 9(1), 159–168. doi:org/10.1111/2041-210X.12844
Bidarlord, M., Tokasi, S., & Mousavi Koupar, S. A. (2026). Escape of Coreopsis tinctoria in northern Iran: Evidence from Gilan Province. Rostaniha, 27(1), 59-68. doi:10.22092/bot.j.iran.2026.373259.1453
Blackburn, T. M., Pyšek, P., Bacher, S., Carlton, J. T., Duncan, R. P., Jarošík, V., Wilson, J. R. U., & Richardson, D. M. (2011). A proposed unified framework for biological invasions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 26(7), 333–339. doi:org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.03.023
Bonnett, G. D., Kushner, J. N. S., & Saltonstall, K. (2014). The reproductive biology of Saccharum spontaneum L.: Implications for management of this invasive weed in Panama. NeoBiota, 20, 61–79. doi:org/10.3897/neobiota.20.6163
Craven, D., Hall, J., & Verjans, J. M. (2009). Impacts of herbicide application and mechanical cleanings on growth and mortality of two timber species in Saccharum spontaneum grasslands of the Panama Canal Watershed. Restoration Ecology, 17(6), 751-761.
Cummings, J. A., Parker, I. M., & Gilbert, G. S. (2023). The influence of nitrogen and phosphorus addition on growth of the invasive C4 grass Saccharum spontaneum. International Journal of Plant Biology, 14(2), 474–482.
Gioria, M., & Osborne, B. A. (2014). Resource competition in plant invasions: Emerging patterns and research needs. Frontiers in Plant Science, 5, 501. doi:org/10.3389/fpls.2014.00501
Hassan, A., Malik, K., Naqvi, S. A. M., Khan, K., & Sadia, H. (2024). A comprehensive review of Saccharum spontaneum, its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 29, 1–13.
Hawkins, C. L., Bacher, S., Essl, F., Hulme, P. E., Jeschke, J. M., Kühn, I., Kumschick, S., Nentwig, W., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., Rabitsch, W., Richardson, D. M., Vilà, M., Wilson, J. R. U., Genovesi, P., & Blackburn, T. M. (2015). Framework and guidelines for implementing the Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT). Diversity and Distributions, 21(11), 1360–1363. doi:org/10.1111/ddi.12379
IUCN. (2020). Guidelines for using the IUCN Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT) Categories and Criteria (Version 1.1). International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Karbassi, A. R., Nouri, J., Mehrdadi, N., & Ayaz, G. O. (2008). Flocculation of heavy metals during mixing of freshwater with Caspian Sea water. Environmental Geology, 53(8), 1811–1816. doi:org/10.1007/s00254-007-0786-7
Kumschick, S., Measey, G. J., Vimercati, G., de Villiers, F. A., Mokhatla, M. M., Davies, S. J., Thorp, C. J., Rebelo, A. D., Blackburn, T. M., & Kraus, F. (2017). How repeatable is the Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT)? Comparing independent global impact assessments of amphibians. Ecology and Evolution, 7(8), 2661–2670. doi:org/10.1002/ece3.2877
Martínez, M. L., & Psuty, N. P. (2004). Coastal dunes: Ecology and conservation. Springer.
Maun, M. A. (2009). The biology of coastal sand dunes. Oxford University Press.
Pandey, V. C., Singh, N., Singh, R. P., & Singh, D. P. (2015). Saccharum spontaneum: An underutilized tall grass for revegetation and restoration programs. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 62, 1131–1139. doi:org/10.1007/s10722-014-0208-0
Probert, A. F., Vimercati, G., Kumschick, S., Volery, L., & Bacher, S. (2023). Clarification and guidance on the use of the Socio-Economic Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (SEICAT) framework. NeoBiota, 89, 45–70. doi:org/10.3897/neobiota.89.109911
Pyšek, P., & Richardson, D. M. (2007). Traits associated with invasiveness in alien plants. In W. Nentwig (Ed.), Biological invasions (pp. 97–125). Springer.
Pyšek, P., Hulme, P. E., Simberloff, D., Bacher, S., Blackburn, T. M., Carlton, J. T., Dawson, W., Essl, F., Foxcroft, L. C., Genovesi, P., Jeschke, J. M., Kühn, I., Liebhold, A. M., Mandrak, N. E., Meyerson, L. A., Pauchard, A., Pergl, J., Roy, H. E., van Kleunen, M., & Richardson, D. M. (2020). Scientists’ warning on invasive alien species. Biological Reviews, 95(6), 1511–1534. doi:org/10.1111/brv.12627
Raziei, T., Daryabari, J., Bordi, I., & Pereira, L. S. (2014). Spatial patterns and temporal trends of precipitation in Iran. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 115(3–4), 531–540. doi:org/10.1007/s00704-013-0919-8
Richardson, D. M., & Pyšek, P. (2012). Naturalization of introduced plants: Ecological drivers of biogeographical patterns. New Phytologist, 196(2), 383–396.
doi:org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04292.x
Roshan, G., Khoshakhlagh, F., Fitchett, J. M., & Grab, S. W. (2016). Assessment of climate change impacts on the Caspian Sea Iranian coastal wetlands using GIS. Marine Georesources & Geotechnology, 34(7), 667–674. doi:org/10.1080/1064119X.2015.1077249
Saltonstall, K., & Bonnett, G. D. (2012). Fire promotes growth and reproduction of Saccharum spontaneum (L.) in Panama. Biological Invasions, 14, 2479–2488.
Saltonstall, K., Bonnett, G. D., & Aitken, K. S. (2021). A perfect storm: Ploidy and preadaptation facilitate Saccharum spontaneum escape and invasion in the Republic of Panama. Biological Invasions, 23, 1101–1115.
Stone, K. R. (2008). Weed risk assessment guidebook. Hawaii Pacific Weed Risk Assessment Program.
Tirgan S, Naqinezhad A, Moradi H, Kazemi Z, Vasefi N, Fenu G (2022) Caspian remnant coastal dunes: how do natural and anthropogenic factors impact on plant diversity and vegetation? Plant Biosystems 156(6): 1456–1469. doi:org/10.1080/11263504.2022.2065376
Tokarska-Guzik, B., Dajdok, Z., Zając, M., Zając, A., Urbisz, A., Danielewicz, W., & Hołdyński, C. (2012). Alien plants in Poland with particular reference to invasive species. General Directorate for Environmental Protection.
Tokasi, S., Seraji, A., Bidarlord, M. (2027). Risk assessment of invasive plant, Commelina communis in Gilan Province (North of Iran). Rostaniha, 27 (2), (Accepted).
Vimercati, G., Probert, A. F., Volery, L., Bernardo-Madrid, R., Bertolino, S., Céspedes, V., Essl, F., Evans, T., Gallardo, B., Gallien, L., González-Moreno, P., Grange, M. C., Hui, C., Jeschke, J. M., Katsanevakis, S., Kühn, I., Kumschick, S., Pergl, J., Pyšek, P., ... Bacher, S. (2022). The EICAT+ framework enables classification of positive impacts of alien taxa on native biodiversity. PLoS Biology, 20(8), e3001729. doi:org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001729
Virtue, J. G., & Melland, R. L. (2003). The environmental weed risk of revegetation and forestry plants. Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation, South Australia.
Volery, L., Blackburn, T. M., Bertolino, S., Evans, T., Genovesi, P., Kumschick, S., Roy, H. E., Smith, K. G., & Bacher, S. (2020). Improving the Environmental Impact Classification for Alien Taxa (EICAT): A summary of revisions to the framework and guidelines. NeoBiota, 62, 547–567. doi:org/10.3897/neobiota.62.52723